Death of Socrates Extract from "Egypt, Greece and Rome Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean", Charles Freeman, 1999, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-872194-3 (pg 230) "There is no evidence that Socrates' accusers were out to put him to death. The normal penalty would have been exile. However, Socrates was in no mood to compromise and he even argued before the jury that the city should be supporting him at public expense for his contributions to its affairs. In the version recorded by Plato he put his case clearly and consistently but seems only to have aroused greater anger among the listeners. They eventually voted for the death penalty. (There is another tradition that Socrates said little at his trial.) According to Plato, Socrates met his end calmly, sharing his thoughts while the hemlock steadily spread through his body. Plato's accounts of his last days have left one of the most enduring images of Western cultural and political history."

Hemlock toxicological information, web references and literature references Coniine and the Hemlock Alkaloids : http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/hemlock/

Hemlock toxicological information, web references and literature references Conium maculatum (poison hemlock - coniine as main toxin) and Cicuta maculata (water hemlock - cicutoxin as main toxin) "It was the juice of poison hemlock with which the ancient Greeks killed Socrates." "The toxic effects of cicutoxin are more morbidly impressive and violent than those from coniine." THE MANAGEMENT OF PLANT EXPOSURES: The Most Common, The Most Dangerous, Treatment Guidelines by Edward P. Krenzelok, PharmD, FAACT, ABAT and Terry D. Jacobsen, PhD, FLS : http://informatics.drake.edu/pth/html/frontm/section/plantexp.htm Lethal Hemlocks (water hemlock, poison hemlock) Conium maculatum (poison hemlock) and Cicuta maculata (water hemlock) were responsible for 7 of the 19 plant-related fatalities that occurred from 1985-1994.2 This is a relatively high fatality rate since the total number of reported exposures was only 582.2 Most of the fatalities are the result of improper identification of these plants. The roots are mistaken as being wild carrots or parsnips and when consumed in sufficient quantity, grave toxicity develops. Conium maculatum contains coniine which is a peripheral neurotoxin that produces curare-like effects on neuromuscular junctions and nicotinic effects on autonomic ganglia.31,32,33 The toxidrome consists of ascending skeletal muscle hypotonia or flaccidity that can progress to paralysis of the respiratory musculature. Initial effects may include sialorrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea followed by gastrointestinal hypotonia and dry mouth.32 The toxicity from Cicuta maculata ingestion is attributed to cicutoxin. The toxic effects of cicutoxin are more morbidly impressive and violent than those from coniine.33-37 Early muscarinic effects are localized to the gastrointestinal tract.35,37 Systemic muscarinic effects bronchial secretions) leading to respiratory distress may occur. However, pathognomonic of severe cicutoxin poisoning are violent multiple major motor seizures.33-37 The symptoms often begin within 30 minutes after ingestion.37 Gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal may be beneficial in patients with recent ingestions. Otherwise, the cornerstone of therapy is aggressive supportive care. Krenzelok EP, Jacobsen TD, and Aronis JM, "Hemlock Ingestions: The Most Deadly Plant Exposures,"J Toxicol Clin Toxicol, 1996, 34:601-2. Scatizzi A, Di Maggio A, Rizzi D, et al, "Acute Renal Failure Due to Tubular Necrosis Caused by Wildfowl-Mediated Hemlock Poisoning,"Renal Failure, 1993, 15:93-6. Rizzi D, Basile C, Di Maggio A, et al, "Clinical Spectrum of Accidental Hemlock Poisoning: Neurotoxic Manifestations, Rhabdomyolsis, and Acute Tubular Necrosis,"Nephrol Dial Transplant, 1991, 6:939-44. Landers D, Seppi K, and Blauer W, "Seizures and Death on a White River Float Trip,"West J Med, 1985, 142:637-40. Mutter L, "Poisoning by Western Water Hemlock,"Can J Public Health, 1976, 67:386. Starreveld E and Hope CE, "Cicutoxin Poisoning (Water Hemlock),"Neurology, 1975, 25:730-4. Mitchell MI and Rutledge PA, "Hemlock Water Dropwort Poisoning - A Review,"J Toxicol Clin Toxicol, 1978, 12:417-26. Applefeld JJ and Caplan ES, "A Case of Water Hemlock Poisoning,"J Am Coll Emerg Phys, 1979, 8:401-3.

Physician's desk reference to pesticide health hazards : http://www-aes.tamu.edu/doug/MED/PGPHH.HTM "Toxicology comes from the polysynthetic union of two Greek words, toxicon and ologos. Toxicon comes from the Greek verb meaning "bow or to bend" or sometimes meaning "bow and arrows," and ologos means "to study." The ancient Greeks drew the descriptive term toxicon from their observations of human poisoning. Socrates poisoning by hemlock produced the symptoms actively described by the Greek term. Hemlock contains the potent toxin, coniine, that produces the bending described by the Greek term toxicon without convulsions so characteristic of cicutoxin in the water hemlocks. "

Plant Poisoning, Hemlock from Emergency Medicine/Toxicology: http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic875.htm Pathophysiology: Poison hemlock contains several alkaloid toxins that are structurally similar to nicotine. Initially, nicotinic activation from poison hemlock may lead to early CNS stimulation, headache, and ataxia. Nicotinelike effects at autonomic ganglia may cause tachycardia, salivation, mydriasis, and diaphoresis. In severe cases, the stimulation phase is later followed by a severe depressant phase characterized by bradycardia, ascending motor paralysis, CNS depression, and respiratory paralysis from nondepolarizing blockade at neuromuscular junctions. Water hemlock contains cicutoxin, a potent toxin. A single bite of the root, which contains the highest concentration of cicutoxin, has been purported to kill an adult. Ingestion of water hemlock produces GI symptoms (eg, salivation, nausea, emesis) within 15 minutes, rapidly followed by CNS effects (eg, excitation, convulsions, seizures, coma). The mechanism is unclear, but hypothetically, cicutoxin induces overstimulation of central cholinergic pathways (basal ganglia and brainstem).

Water Hemlock Poisoning -- Maine, 1992: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00026056.htm Poison Hemlock (Source: Idaho's Noxious Weeds by Robert H. Callihan & Timothy W. Miller): http://www.oneplan.org/Crop/noxWeeds/nxWeed21.htm Poison Hemlock : http://www.vet.purdue.edu/depts/addl/toxic/plant28.htm

"Poison Hemlock": "Poison Hemlock": Conditions of poisoning: http://www.library.uiuc.edu/vex/toxic/phemlock/phemlck2.htm "Poison Hemlock": Clinical signs: http://www.library.uiuc.edu/vex/toxic/phemlock/phemlck5.htm Systemic effects: After having eaten poison hemlock, animals may lose their appetites, salivate excessively, bloat, and have a rapid but feeble pulse. They also show evidence of muscular incoordination and appear to have great abdominal pain. Other signs include muscle tremors, frequent urination and defecation, recumbency, mydriasis, and "nervousness" followed by severe depression. In animals that die, breathing ceases due to respiratory paralysis before cardiac arrest. Convulsions, which occur in water-hemlock poisoning, do not follow the eating of poison hemlock. "Poison Hemlock": Toxic principle: http://www.library.uiuc.edu/vex/toxic/phemlock/phemlck4.htm "Poison Hemlock": Description and photo: http://www.library.uiuc.edu/vex/toxic/phemlock/phemlck0.htm

Extracts of Hemlock relevant publications from: "U.S. Food & Drug Administration: Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition : Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Beverages: Poisonous Plant Database" http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~djw/readme.html Aggio 1907-368 Aggio, C. (1907) Hemlock poisoning - two outbreaks. Am Vet Review 32(Dec):368 Anonymous (1913) Poison hemlock, other names, habitat, description, collection, uses, and prices. Dept Bull #26:11-12 Anonymous (1951) Unusual case of hemlock poisoning in swine. California Vet 5(2):26 Anonymous (1954) Hemlock. Econ Bot 8:47 Anonymous (1958) Reducing livestock losses from water hemlock poisoning in the Western states. USDA PA-330(Apr):3pp Anonymous (1966) Water Hemlock Death. Natl Clearinghouse Poison Control Centers Bull 1966(Jan-Feb):3-4 Anonymous (1967) Water hemlock in production ponds. Prog Fish Cult 29:181 Applefeld, J. J.; Caplan, E. S. (1979) A case of water hemlock poisoning. JACEP 8(10, Oct):401-403 Baidala; Rodina (1966) [Favorable outcome after acute water hemlock poisoning.] Klin Med 44(5):146-148 Bailey, W. W. (1891) Hemlock and parsley. Am Naturalist 25:784-786 Ball, M. J.; Flather, M. L.; Forfar, J. C. (1987) Hemlock water dropwort poisoning. Postgrad Med J 63:363-365 Bowman, W. C.; Sanghvi, I. S. (1963) Pharmacological actions of hemlock (Conium maculatum) alkaloids. J Pharmacy Pharmacol 15(Jan):1-25 Buckingham, J. L. (1936) Poisoning in a pig by hemlock (Conium maculatum). Vet J 92:301-302 Carlton, B. E.; Tufts, E.; Girard, D. E. (1979) Water hemlock poisoning complicated by rhabdomyolysis and renal failure. Clin Toxicol 14(1):87-92 Case, A. A. (1969) Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum). Missouri Vet 19(2):12-14 Case, A. A. (1969) Poison hemlock. Missouri Vet 19:18-19 Cederstam, R. (1976) [Water hemlock (Cicuta Virosa) poisoning.] Svensk Vet 28(24):1114-1116 Copithorne, B. (1937) Suspected poisoning of goats by hemlock (Conium maculatum). Vet Record 49(33):1018-1019 Costanza, D. J.; Hoversten, V. W. (1973) Accidental ingestion of water hemlock. Report of two patients with acute and chronic effects. California Med 119(2):78-82 Cromwell, B. T. (1956) The separation, micro-estimation and distribution of the alkaloids of hemlock (Conium maculatum L.). Biochem J 64:259-266 Dyson, D. A; Wrathall, A. E. (1977) Congenital deformities in pigs possibly associated with exposure to hemlock (Conium maculatum). Vet Record 100(12):241-242 Edmonds, L. D.; Selby, L. A.; Case, A. A. (1972) Poisoning and congenital malformations associated with consumption of poison hemlock by sows. J Am Vet Med Assoc 160(9):1319-1324 Egdahl, A. (1911) A case of poisoning due to eating poison-hemlock (Cicuta maculata). Arch Internal Med 7:348-356 Ely, W. (1814) Venomous qualities of the water hemlock or Cicuta maculata. Med Repository 2:303-304 Fairbairn, J. W.; Ali, A. A. (1968) The alkaloids of hemlock (conium maculatum). 3. The presence of bound forms in the plant. Phytochemistry 7:1593-1597 Fairbairn, J. W.; Ali, A. A. (1968) The alkaloids of hemlock. 4. Isotopic studies of the bound form of alkaloids in the plant. Phytochemistry 7:1599-1603 Fairbairn, J. W.; Challen, S. B. (1959) The alkaloids of hemlock (Conium maculatum L.). I. Distribution in relation to the development of the fruit. Biochem J 72:556-561 Fairbairn, J. W.; Suwal, P. N. (1961) The alkaloids of hemlock (Conium maculatum L.). II. Evidence for a rapid turnover of the major alkaloids. Phytochemistry 1:38-46 Fitzgerald, P.; Moss, N.; O'Mahony, S.; Whelton, M. J. (1987) Accidental hemlock poisoning. Br Med J 295(6613):1657 Fleming, C. E.; Peterson, N. F.; Miller, M. R.; Wright, L. H.; Louck, R. C. (1920) The poison parsnip or water hemlock (Cicuta occidentalis). A plant deadly to live stock in Nevada. Nevada Agr Exp Sta Bull #100(Dec):23pp Frank, A. A.; Reed, W. M. (1990) Comparative toxicity of coniine, an alkaloid of Conium maculatum (poison hemlock), in chickens, quails, and turkeys. Avian Dis 34(2):433-437 Frank, A. A.; Reed, W. M. Conium maculatum (poison hemlock) toxicosis in a flock of range turkeys. Avian Dis 31(2):386-388 Goeden, R. D.; Ricker, D. W. (1982) Poison hemlock, Conium maculatum, in Southern California - An alien weed attacked by few insects. Annals Entomolog Soc Am 75(2):173-176 Gompertz, L. M. (1926) Poisoning with poison hemlock (Cicuta maculata), Report of seventeen cases. J Am Med Assoc 87(16):1277-1278 Grundy, H. F.; Howarth, F. (1956) Pharmacological studies on hemlock water dropwort. Br J Pharmacol 11:225-230 Gunn, A. (1881) Hemlock poisoning in cattle. Vet J Annals Comp Pathol (Oct):233-235 Hannam, D. A. R. (1985) Hemlock (Conium maculatum) poisoning in the pig. Vet Record 116(12):322 Hansen, A. A. (1923) Beware of water hemlock. Better Crops 1(4):24-25 Hansen, A. A. (1928) Cicuta or water hemlock poisoning. North Am Vet 9(6):34-39 Hill, R. K. (1958) Stereochemistry of the hemlock alkaloids. II. Pseudoconhydrine. J Am Chem Soc 80(Apr 5):1611-1613 Hill, R. K. (1958) Stereochemistry of the hemlock alkaloids. I. Conhydrine. J Am Chem Soc 80(Apr 5):1609-1611 Hollman, A. (1988) Hemlock poisoning. Br Med J 296(6618):361 Jacobson, C. A. (1915) Water hemlock (Cicuta). Nevada Agr Exp Sta Tech Bull #81(Mar) James, L. F. (1984) Poisonous plants: The hemlocks. Rangelands 6(3):128-129 James, L. F.; Ralphs, M. H. (1986) Water hemlock. Utah Science 47(2):67-69 JeanBlain, C. (1978) Hemlock, Conium maculatum. Notes Toxicol Vet 5:271-272 Jessup, D. A.; Boermans, H. J.; Kock, N. D. (1986) Toxicosis in tule elk caused by ingestion of poison hemlock. J Am Vet Med Assoc 189(9):1173-1175 Ladd, E. F. (1900) Water hemlock poisoning. North Dakota Agr Exp Sta Bull #44:563-569 Landers, D.; Seppi, K.; Blauer, W. (1985) Seizures and death on a white river float trip. Report of water hemlock poisoning. Western J Med 142(5):637-640 Laskowski, S.; Matyjek, J.; Koppicz, M.; Pohorski, A. (1973) [Hemlock poisoning.] Pol Arch Med Wewn 50(11):1237-1239 Leete, E; Olson, J. O. (1972) Biosynthesis and metabolism of the hemlock alkaloids. Am Chem Soc J 94(15):5472-5477 Lkhagvazhav, K.; Biambasuren, C.; Maslov, A. V. (1980) [Group poisoning by water hemlock.] Sud Med Ekspert 23(3):51-52 MacDonald, H. (1937) Hemlock poisoning in horses. Vet Record 49(38):1211-1212 Mack, R. B. (1985) Keats, Socrates, and fool's parsley - Water hemlock poisoning. North Carolina Med J 46(Mar):163-164 Majerus, T. C.; Schwartz, W. K.; Odera, G. M. (1978) Accidental ingestion of water hemlock - Report of a case and review of the literature. Am Assoc Poison Control Centers Mtg Abstr :34 Markham, K. (1985) Hemlock poisoning in piglets. Vet Record 116(1):27 Marsh, C. D.; Clawson, A. B.; Marsh, H. (1917) Cicuta (water hemlock) as a poisonous plant. USDA Bur Anim Indust Circ A-15:1-4pp Marsh, C. D.; Clawson, A. B.; Marsh, H. (1914) Cicuta, or water hemlock. USDA Bull #69:1-27pp Miller, M. M. (1933) Water hemlock poisoning. J Am Med Assoc 101(11):852-853 Mitchell, M. I.; Routledge, P. A. (1978) Hemlock water dropwort poisoning: A review. Clin Toxicol 12(4):417-426 Mitchell, M. I.; Routledge, P. A. (1977) Poisoning by hemlock water dropwort. Lancet 1(8008):423-424 Muratova, L. M. (1981) [Providing aid before the hospital stage to children with water hemlock poisoning.] Feldsher Akush 46(5):38-40 Mutter, L. (1976) Poisoning by Western Water Hemlock. Can J Public Health 67(5):386 O'Mahony, S.; Fitzgerald, P.; Whelton, M. J. (1987) Poisoning by hemlock water dropwort. Irish J Med Sci 156:241 Ober, W. B (1977) Did Socrates die of hemlock poisoning? New York State J Med 77(2):254-258 Pammel, L. H. (1919) Poison hemlock. Am J Vet Med 14:513-514 Panter, K. E.; Bunch, T. D.; Keeler, R. F.; Sisson, D. V. (1988) Radio ultrasound observations of the fetotoxic effects in sheep from ingestion of Conium maculatum (poison-hemlock). J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 26(3-4):175-187 Panter, K. E.; Bunch, T. D.; Keeler, R. F. (1988) Maternal and fetal toxicity of poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) in sheep. Am J Vet Res 49(2):281-283 Panter, K. E.; Keeler, R. F.; Buck, W. B. (1985) Induction of cleft palate in newborn pigs by maternal ingestion of poison hemlock (Conium maculatum). Am J Vet Res 46(6):1368-1371 Panter, K. E.; Keeler, R. F.; Baker, D. C. (1988) Toxicoses in livestock from the hemlocks (Conium and Cicuta spp.). J Anim Sci 66:2407-2413 Panter, K. E.; Keeler, R. F.; Buck, W. B. (1985) Congenital skeletal malformations induced by maternal ingestion of Conium maculatum (poison hemlock) in newborn pigs. Am J Vet Res 46(10):2064-2066 Pavonk, G. S.; Segelman, A. B. (1980) Analytical toxicology and phytochemistry of the American water hemlock, Cicuta maculata L. (Umbelliferae). Vet Human Toxicol 22(Sup 2):367 Payonk, G. S.; Segelman, A. B. (1980) Analytical toxicology and phytochemistry of the American water hemlock, Cicuta maculata L. (Umbelliferea). Vet Human Toxicol 22(Suppl 2):70 Penny, R. H. C. (1953) Hemlock poisoning in cattle. Vet Record 65(42):699-670 Plotti, G. B. (1900) Poisoning by virulent hemlock. Am Vet Review 23:717 Ray, J. (1699) Part of a letter... giving an account of the poisonous qualities of hemlock-water-dropwort. Philosoph Trans Roy Soc London 20:84-86 Richter, H. E. (1964) [Poisoning by hemlock, Conium maculatum.] Deut Tierarzt Wschr 51:404-407 Rizzi, D.; Basile, C.; Dimaggio, A.; Sebastio, A.; Introna, F. Jr; Bruno, S.; Scatizzi, A.; Demarco, S. (1989) Rhabdomyolysis and acute tubular necrosis in coniine (hemlock) poisoning. Lancet 2(Dec 6):1461-1462 Robson, P. (1965) Water hemlock poisoning. Lancet 2(Dec 18):1274-1275 Romano, E.; Russo, V.; Gullo, A.; Valenti, S. (1978) [Hemlock poisoning. Clinical contribution.] Minerva Anestesiol 44(1):45-48 Rubaj, B.; Zimowski, A. (1971) [Intoxication of ferrets with hemlock (Conium maculatum L.).] Medycyna Wet 27(10):622-623 Rudolph, G. (1985) [Amor medicabilis herbis. An attempt in the 18th century to cure oneself of erotomania by the use of hemlock] Gesnerus 42:383-398 Skidmore, L. V. (1933) Water hemlock (Cicuta maculata L.) poisoning in swine. Vet J 89(2):76-80 Smith, L. J.; Thill, D. C.; Callihan, R. H.; Lish, J. M. (1982) Poison Hemlock - A threat to man and livestock. Idaho Ext Serv Current Info Series #632:3pp Starreveld, E.; Hope, C. E. (1975) Cicutoxin poisoning (water hemlock). Neurology 25(8):730-734 Stratton, M. R. (1919) Water hemlock poisoning. Colorado Med 16:104-111 Sweeney, K.; Gensheimer, K. F.; KnowltonField, J.; Smith, R. A. (1994) Water hemlock poisoning - Main, 1992. Morb Mortal Wkly Rpt 43(13):229-231 Teal, M. (1953) Poisonous plant plagues Oregon; unawareness of fatal consequences responsible for hemlock's growth. Oregonian Farm, Home & Garden Section (27 Sep):13 Tucker, J. M.; Fowler, M. E.; Harvey, W. A.; Berry, L. J. (1964) Poisonous hemlocks: Their identification and control. California Ext Serv Circ #530:4-19 Tudor, G.; Anton, E.; Diaconescu, G. (1969) [Conium maculatum (hemlock) poisoning in sheep.] Revista Zootehnie Med Vet 19(11):74-80 Undine, C. A. (1938) Poisoning with Cicuta maculata or water hemlock. Minnesota Med 21:262,296 VanHeijst, A. N. P.; Pikaar, S. A.; VanKesteren, R. G.; Douze, J. M. (1983) [Poisoning due to water hemlock (Cicuta virosa).] Nederland Tijdschrift Geneeskunde 127(53):2411-2413 Verhulst, H. L. (1966) Water hemlock death. Natl Clearinghouse Poison Control Centers Bull 1966(Jan-Feb):3-4 Warren, R. (1957) Water hemlock. Oregon Ext Serv Bull #767(Jul) Widmer, W. R. (1984) Poison hemlock in swine. Vet Med Small Anim Clinician 79(3):405-408 Wilcox, E. V. (1899) Poisoning of stock by the water hemlock. Montana Agr Exp Sta Bull 22:48 Wilson, A. L.; Johnston, W. G.; McCusker, H. B.; Bannatyne, C. C. (1958) Hemlock water dropwort (Oenanthe crocata) poisoning in cattle. Vet Record 70:587-590 Withers, L. M.; Cole, F. R.; Nelson, R. B. (1969) Water-hemlock poisoning. New England J Med 281(10):566-567